Animal rights: overview

Rights legal and moral of the animals are a subject that can arouse great passions, for and against. Traditionally, saw him reported no law on animals, but in the course of the last two centuries, more people have come to argue that animals have moral rights and should have legal rights. Debates on these rights have left the classroom and the courtroom in recent years and are the subject of intense activism, which has sometimes led to attacks from scientific laboratories that use animals as subjects of 'experience as well as people wearing fur coats. Animal rights activists have formed powerful organizations to protect everything from pets to chickens kept for the whales dinner table in the deep sea.

Poster promoting vegetarianism

Throughout human history, we have always interacted with animals. Animals have provided food, clothing, with work, with transport and much more. For centuries, the exploitation of animals has been taken as a human right; animal existence to humanity and little attention has been given to their well-being or happiness. The treatment of the animals varied culture in culture. Some cultures revere cows, while others see cattle as a cheap protein. Some cultures view dogs as "man's best friend" and others sees them as a main dish for dinner. From the 19th century, moral philosophers and lawyers in the West started to question if the animals were simply property to use or abused as their owners wished. The animal rights movement had its origin both in the growing recognition that domestic animals. Now known as "pets," should be protected against abuse and examples of blatant and unnecessary cruelty that has alarmed and disgusted the public. For example, in the city of New York in the 19th century, treating common (property of movers) their horses resulted in the formation of societies for the protection of animals.

Today, the debate on animal rights is international and the pen of philosophers, scientists, lawyers and activists. He did y consensus not evident in this debate on an approach specific to the problem or if all or only certain animals have rights. A part, there are those who say that all animals, even insects, a certain degree of moral and legal rights. This extreme view point has even led some to assert that it is wrong to ' eradicate the viruses that cause smallpox or the middle, because humanity should never drive a species to extinction. Others will say that only certain animal species have all rights at all. Some argue that only the so-called "species of accompaniment," like cats and dogs that are kept as pets, should have rights. Others would extend rights to domestic species such as horses, but no more details. And some say that the animals no right at all and exists only for the use of humankind, the man that God gave biblical "dominion" Following the concept of all animals.

One of the major difficulties during the consideration of the rights of animals is the lack of consensus as regards on what basis that a theory of animal rights should be built. Is the crucial question of whether the animal is sensitive? Or if the key question of whether animals can feel pain and fear? Or the issue would be if the use or abuse of animals is pragmatically unwise? There is also the question of the origin of these rights, existing word. Rights of animals come only human action? If so, we then conclude that a man can also easily deprive the animals of their rights that afford them. If the rights of animals are not only of human law and morality (they are 'natural rights' or rights arising from a hunting), then must deal with all matters relating to these rights, including religious and philosophical issues. Finally, he did y consensus unclear, even among those who favor the rights of animals, about the extent to non-existent rights of which these. Some say that animals have the right of "be free of pain and suffering, including killing. '' Others would limit the animal rights to freedom of cruelty and the guarantee of a 'humane killing '. Others would make these much wider rights, even argue that animals have the right to be complimentary in nature, even if it means the preservation of wild spaces for animals.

The subject of animal rights is one who engages in various individuals and groups around the world. Many organizations exist to promote and preserve these rights. Some, such as divers 'national societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals' have been in existence for decades. Others, like the people of a radical for the ethical treatment of animals, are more recent. Given the roles animals play, provide food to act as subjects of medical and cosmetic treatments at the position test standing in as substitutes for humans by humans in situations dangerous as space exploration or the war, animals and beings humans interact constantly. As long as this situation exists, the controversy over animal rights will continue.

Other References

Decuma, David. Animal rights: A very Short introduction. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002; Guither, Harold D. Animal rights: history and scope of a Radical Social movement. IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997; Regan, Thomas. The case of the rights of animals. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004; Singer, Peter, ed. In defense of animals: the second wave. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2005. ; Singer, Peter. Animal liberation. New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2001; Sunstein, Cass and Nussbaum r. Animal rights: current debates and new directions. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005; Sunstein, Cass R. and Nussbaum, eds. Animal rights: current debates and new directions. New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2004.

Aviation Security: overview

Aviation security has begun as a reagent, driven by industry and became a proactive process, driven by the government. The most important transformations were made following the events of September 11. However, the history of terrorist attacks on civil aviation is certainly not began September 11. Until then, hijacking was the foremost concern of aviation security.

The public became more concerned in criminal activities involving aircraft during hijacking aircraft began to make headlines on a regular basis. Throughout history, hijacking had occurred with sailing ships, trains and buses of the scene. However, when the aircraft became the target, the term hijacking was invented.

Although the skyjackings would have been much earlier, the Prime Minister self-employed incident an American airliner took place May 1, 1961, XXIX so a wave of skyjackings. It all started when a man in a constraint an airliner en route from Miami to Key West, Fla., make a detour to Cuba. It was the first of the four flights hijacked to Cuba this year. Skyjackings were considered immoral acts, involving usually escape repression, political terrorism or extortion. In 1968, he had 22 attempts to escape by forcing the aircraft of the United States to Cuba; 18 of them were successful. Later, the policy of terrorism directed against the United States and Israel has resulted in the destruction of four aircraft jet.

Sketch of d. B. Cooper

Provisional extortion of success only has occurred in 1971, when United Nations skyjacker received $200,000 from Northwest Airlines and then Sauté in parachute from the aircraft. The story is reported as follows: when a Boeing 727 taking off from Portland, Oregon, en route to Seattle, Washington, a man fr seat 18 c has delivered a note to flight attendant who said he had a bomb on board and would jump to the top of the aircraft, unless he received $200,000 and four parachutes when the plane landed. He had bought the ticket under the name of "Dan Cooper", aka the famous D. B. Cooper. After receiving the money and parachutes in Seattle, 36 passengers from it come out and two crew members. He then ordered the crew remaining and pilot aeroplane in Mexico City. At 10,000 feet over an area north of Portland, it jumped by parachute from the rear stairway of the plane. The case remains unsolved.

After four skyjackings in the United States in 1961, air piracy became punishable by 20 years in prison or death under US law. In 1963, hijacking was addressed among several nations of the Organization of international civil aviation (ICAO), through the Tokyo Convention, which required the return of aircraft and passengers and for the prosecution the authors of international law. Some of the nations who participated in the convention have not changed their own laws harmonization with the recommendations. Still others while just any ignored the case. In 1964, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) intervened and has specified that cockpit doors be locked pendant volumes. In 1969, he authorized physical searches of passengers at the discretion of the airlines. These efforts, however, resulted in no significant improvement.

Passenger airlines through security airport metal detector

On believes that reduction would leave the skyjackings, which fell from an average of 72 per one worldwide during the period from 1969 to 1972 less than 29 by one for the next ten years, was the result of improved means of deterrence and preventive measures: armed security officers have been introduced in 1970with the public to warrant killing; more es screening of passengers and baggage began in 1972; and the new requirements stated that American airlines would be inspector all carry-on luggage and all passengers with the peripheral screen metal detection. In 1974, 25 of possible hijacking attempts had been avoided, with 2,400 weapons firearms confiscated at US airports. The institution of these more stringent screening procedures resulted in a significant reduction in the skyjackings, American planes.

The period of relative calm which tracked extended for about a decade; Then, faith in the aviation security not jounce American citizens were dissolved on December 21, 1988, when flight Pan Am 103 jumped into the sky over Lockerbie, in Scotland. He was an U.S. carrier, with 180 US nationals on board. Flight was born at the "London Heathrow International Airport and was headed to the airport international John F. Kennedy in New York. '' all 243 passengers and members of ' 16 crew were killed, as well as 11 people on the ground.

Lockable bombing

Lockable loss resulted from the detonation of a small bomb (also of perhaps little plastic explosives from an on the paper) inside a cassette radio suitcase a player in. The bomb blew a 20-inch hole in the forward cargo compartment. In contrast to the volumes of 9/11, in which committed suicide of 19 terrorists so carries out their missions, the bag containing an explosive device has been balanced to a terrorist on horseback until ' died on the same flight.

For many years, the protection of the aircraft was considered the responsibility first of the industry, the airlines for the aircraft itself and the preferred airport for landing and terminal facilities. However, the destruction of the Pan Am Lockerbie 747 in December 1988 drew the attention of the world to the fact that a very significant loss may result from terrorism and other criminal acts. Government intervention provided for the establishment of the Commission of la raison blanch on aviation safety and security (GORE Commission), which, from among his vast conclusions and recommendations, pointed out that the federal Government should consider as a matter of security aviation security national and financing of the United Nations to provide important for the capital improvement. In other words, attacks against U.S. air carriers were now to take into account the attacks against the United States and culture, rather than a specific airline policy.

Other References

Clay, g. "unmask d. B. Cooper. '' by New York Magazine, October 22, 2007; Bureau of civil aviation security. Unlawful acts against civil aviation. The Federal Aviation Administration, 1994; Paul Seidenstat and Francis X. Splane, ed. Protecting passengers from airlines in an era of terrorism. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2009; Thomas, Andrew R, paragraph., ed. Management of aviation safety. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2008; Transportation Security Administration. Http://www.TSA.gov.

Art and the vs: overview

In a famous decision of the Supreme court, Justice Potter Stewart said that although that it not optative steps to define pornography, he "knew when he saw it." While Stewart may have believed what he optative identifier a pornographic book or painting when he saw it, many of us may find the line between art and pornography involving very small children at best. In the United States, the first amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees the right of freedom of expression to all Americans. This right is not absolute; certain types of speech are not protected. Can not yell fire in a theater just to see people run and say it is a legitimate exercise of freedom of expression. The federal courts have developed extensive case law through thousands of cases to decide what types of speech are protected and which are not. One area that continues to be solo, despite more than a century of litigation, is the difference between artistic expression and pornography. Instead of providing a definition, the supreme court has created a process that allows the premises of 'social standards' to decide if any chose is 'art' and thus protected by the first amendment, or is it simply obscene made lecherous palms.

In the 19th century, it was common to censor art works. Thomas Bowdler became notorious for publishing censored of works of literature. Even Shakespeare's works did not escape censure. So frequent were those censored books that the term "magazine" is quickly became an accepted word. Many artistic associations refused cock-a-doodle-Doo of works of visual art that they considered obscene or inappropriate. Into the middle of the 20th century, films were submitted to the red pen of censorship, a practice that continues on television at the beginning. But with the revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, the issue of censorship and the distinction between art and pornography has become much harder to censorship.

Fountain by Marcel Duchamp

If we think of art, in traditional terms such as rural landscapes single or from official portraits, it is not difficult to distinguish between art and pornography involving children. Similarly, if his idea of literature is the Roman Charles Dickens and Sir Walter Scott, the distinction between art and the vs is clear. Nevertheless, from the second half of the 20th century, all arts have experienced the revolution after the revolution. The definition even art, for legal purposes and the general discussion, as well has become muddy. What constitutes artistic expression in painting, sculpture, or literature has become controversial. When Marcel Duchamp signed a urinal and there was declared art. Traditional notions of sculpture flew out the window. Passion of Romans of D. H. Lawrence and descriptions of explicit sex, recognized today as great literature, were formerly United States and prohibited seizures at our borders as pornography. Today is "performance artists" engage in before public sexual acts on behalf of art. Although various people and groups consider these activities as another chose art, many artists, critical and bosses disagree and claim the right to protection under the first amendment.

National Endowment for the Arts headquarters

An also contentious element of difficulty often involved drawing a line between art and pornography concerns funding. During the Renaissance, artists have survived on the generosity of wealthy patrons. Michelangelo depended on the patronage of the Pope, for example. Today in the United States, the biggest patron of artists, especially young artists, is the government. The federal Government (through organizations such as the National Endowment for the Arts), the governments of the United States (through the humanities and arts councils) and public universities provide employment opportunities and exposure for thousands of artists. Often, these government founders are simply not willing to finance artists do they deem obscene art. This refusal of funding by government agencies, including the National Endowment for the Arts has created great controversy over artistic freedom in recent decades.

A number of artists have attracted international attention and gave rise to clashes between those who accept the work as art and others who see it as nauseating. A high-profile incident involved an exhibition of the works of the photographer Robert Mapplethorpe at the Cincinnati Contemporary Art Center. Applicators, one of the most prominent photographers Americans from the second half of the 20th century, is best known for the photographs of its flowers. But, Mapplethorpe, who was openly homosexual, and also produced a large number of photographs of men engaged in various sexual acts. The director of the art centre has decided to open an exhibition of works by Mapplethorpe, do several of his homoerotic photographs, despite a ban encouraged by the strong opposition of some civic and religious groups. At the opening of the exhibition, the local sheriff arrested the curator under the charge of the ' vs. The trial has attracted worldwide attention. After the close of testimony, many people in the United States believed that a jury in the heart of the politically and religiously American curator would condemn the curator on charges from the ' vs. However, in an unexpected turn of events, the jury decided that Mapplethorpe photos were not legally obscene and that the Registrar was protected by the first amendment.

Brushes

Although there're no powerful national organizations of artists, there many groups in the United States concerned about the protection of artistic freedom. Groups such as American Booksellers Association and the American Library Association are ardent supporters of freedom of expression. The merchants of art, museums and collectors groups openly on the need for a virtually unlimited freedom of expression. Individual artists and writers constantly plead for the rights of artists to express themselves in at them through without any limitation. At the same time, groups, social and religious conservatives have been active in an attempt to curb this artistic freedom. Government agencies have come under intense pressure to deny funding for art avant-avant-gardiste when it is considered as obscene by some groups. Museums come especially large considered by social and religious organizations is whenever they try's to exhibit works "reprehensible."

Disputes concerning the difference between art and pornography and the art of Microsoft extent and artists are protected by the first amendment will continue in the future. There's no risk that the art world stops still controversial art. Numerous artists see their primary social function. There is also no risk that those opposed to the exhibition and the financing of this technique will change their minds, because they think this art both offensive and dangerous.

Other References

Danton, Arthur C., playing with the edge: the photographic achievement of Robert Mapplethorpe. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996; Mey, Kerstin. Art and vs. London: I. B. Tauris, 2006; Pease, Allison. Modernism, mass culture, and L 'aesthetics of l' vs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000; Pease, Allison. Modernism, mass culture, and L 'aesthetics of l' vs. Cambridge University Press, 2000; Steiner, Wendy. The scandal of pleasure: art in L 'age of l' fundamentalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995; Zeigler, Joseph W. Arts in crisis: National Endowment for the Arts against America. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1994.

Alternative medicine: overview

A history of medicine

2000 BC AD "here, eats this root."

1000 A.D."that root is heathen. Say this prayer. »

1850 A.D. "that prayer is superstition. Drink this potion."

1940 A.D. "this potion is snake oil. Swallow this pill."

1985 A.D. "This pill is ineffective. Take this antibiotics. »

2000 A.D.' this antibiotics work liked. Eat here, this root.

-Author unknown

The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) defines complementary medicine and alternative as a collection of methods of health care and considered treatment as distinct from those used in conventional medicine. If used in place of conventional medicine. Therapy is called 'alternative medicine '. If used with conventional medicine, therapy is regarded as 'complementary medicine '. NCCAM has divided the CAM in five distinct areas: alternative medical systems, mind-body interventions, biological basis of energy therapies and therapies, the manipulative and body-based methods. Historically, there has been a struggle to define and make acceptor CAM, in particular in the medical field.

Meditating Hindu

For thousands of years, ancient cultures have used therapeutic treatments that are considered "alternative" by today's standards. For example, Egyptians, Romans and ancient Greeks used massage for the cure of disease. Similarly, Hindu practitioners have used meditation for healing for thousands of years. Alternative medicine in America has its roots in the early 1800s. This period saw the dramatic rise of alternative medicine, including mesmerism, homeopathy, hydropathy, physiotherapy and medicinal plants. During this period, alternative medicine is often called 'restructuring' medicine because it was very different from 'regular' medicine who conducted doctors. Illusion of practitioners focused on prevention, listen to patients instead of focusing on the disease and prescribed conventional drugs. This differs considerably from the practices of physicians trained in officially, which tended to focus on the disease and prescribe drugs to correct the disease.

Because of the marked difference in their philosophies, "irregular" doctors he their medical practices in the United States as an alternative to the established medicine. This establishment has taken several forms, including the publication of magazines, to promote their views. For example, in 1834, Samuel Thomson developed a practice of healing herbal called Thomsonian medicine and published The Botanical Thomsonian Watchman to publicize. Practitioners of alternative medicine have also established schools for their new healers old techniques in. In the 1820s, immigrant German Constantin Hering popularized homeopathy in America and in 1835, has created the North American Academy of homeopathic healing art. In 1892, Andrew Taylor Still developed osteopathy and one opened the American School d 'osteopathy in which students could get a doctor's diploma d' osteopathy. Promoters can also underline the weakness of many alternative treatments. L ' homeopathy became popular in America because C ' was cheaper than regular medical treatment; medications also had tasted best. Another alternative medicine, hydropathy or water-cure, was also an inexpensive treatment for healing. With this practice, patients drank water the coldest possible, took cold baths and were wrapped in wet sheets.

Acupuncture

The years 1900, 'ordinary' doctors sought to limit the influence of other practitioners in the healing field. Doctors regular leaflet two major concerns about alternative medicine. First, they felt that it was quackery. Located, they were concerned with the rise in popularity of medicines affecting the legitimacy and authority of conventional medicine. A way they reached limiting the influence of alternative medicine was for a medical license by L 'l broker' medical education, except primarily of healers to practice alternative medicine. In 1910, a reform effort was underway to reform everything medical, pts (Orthodox) and irregular (complementary) medicine faculties. This reform began with the Flexner report, a research paper that analyzed the quality of medical training in the United States and Canada. It considers that the orthodox medical schools were unable to educate students orthodox medicine, fr and that the curricula of the faculties of alternative medicine has been dubious at best.

In response to the Flexner report, orthodox medical schools have increased their requirements and many non-Orthodox medicine faculties were cellar. Adding to the difficulties encountered by non-traditional healers, in the 1920s Orthodox doctors made campaign successfully for a new law, the law on basic science, which required any practitioner, Orthodox and heterodox, to submit to a review of anatomy and physiology. In response to this new law, alternative medicine schools have increased the level of education. Since the 1950s, the Association American healing began to approve the programs of study offered in some alternative medicine faculties. In the 1960s, same osteopathic medical schools received state funds, often making alongside the faculties of medicine in major universities and a summer reimbursed under the sickness insurance scheme.

Echinacea

In the 1960s, the struggle for the acceptor to cam practitioners has waned. This was partly due to the fact that President Richard Nixon has warned that the country was facing a crisis of medical care in 1969. Among the complaints about care medical Orthodox at the time were the increased costs, decreased perception of quality of care, and of the political wrangling over national health insurance plans. Dissatisfaction gave birth to the holistic philosophy, in which he put an emphasis on treating the patient as a whole and not just the disease. By the mid-1970s, have been implemented holistic health that combines orthodox medicine alternative medicine. In the 1980s, the popularity of alternative medicine in a Meissnerianis air. Homeopathic medicines have been sold at conventional pharmacies.

Help of the holistic movement and after a century and a half of efforts at legitimacy, complementary and alternative medicine are increasingly becoming more accepted by traditional medicine. The orthodox medical system admitted in the 1990s that many complementary medicines were effective. In fact, in some cases they may even be preferable to conventional drugs owing to their side effects lack. These conclusions come partly from research conducted by researchers on the effectiveness of complementary medicine. Due to these studies, the medical community has begun to embrace the idea of complementary medicine, using complementary therapies to complement the exercise of orthodox medicine. This approach got a place for unconventional treatments in modern conventional medicine and their significance is likely to grow.

Other References

Helms, Jennifer E. "a new frontier for nursing education? Journal of Nursing Education, 45, 3 (2006): 117-123. ; Johnston, Robert D. The politics of healing: a history of the Alternative Medicine in 20th century North America. New York: Routledge, 2003; Spencer, John w. and Joseph J. Jacobs. Complementary and alternative medicine: an evidence-based approach. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2003; Whorton, James C. Nature juxtaposed: the history of American Alternative Medicine. Oxford University Press: New York, 2002.

Alcohol abuse: overview

In the 1800s, the average adult American consumed almost seven liters of whiskey annually, three times today's annual consumption. However, at the time, few people drinking whisky throughout the day were excessive or unusual. Most Americans considered whiskey as a drink special l America, as the France had wine and beer England had. Corn, the ingredient of whisky database, a summer of abundant and is cultivated. Surplus crops that could not be transported economically could be transformed into whisky which optative be moved easily. Other forms of alcohol have been superfluous consumed as well. Apples have been transformed into cider in the Northeast, while sugar cane became the rum in the deep South. Despite the movements to eliminate or reduce the consumption of alcohol, Americans remain among heavy consumers of alcohol in the world. Excessive consumption of alcohol, however, can easily lead to abuses. Alcohol abuse is closely linked to contemporary social problems such as drunk driving, the "roaming, spouse and child abuse and economic ruin. ''

Eighteenth amendment

The first attempts to limit alcohol consumption were based on voluntary compliance. The monetary benefits of abstinence were evident. Workers are more productive, families had more money, and the company was more secure. The leaders of the movement of voluntary abstinence were Protestant clergy who attacked "demon rum" and condemned drunkenness as a sin. In 1841, six craftsmen in Baltimore formed the Washington Temperance society, the Prime Minister for the former heavy drinkers. Many reformers realized that voluntary abstinence is not enough. They have requested the right to prohibit the sale and alcohol consumption. Starting from the 1870s, women organizations have taken the lead in trying to ban alcohol. Gradually, public opinion is tournament against distilled spirits, beverages with lower alcohol content. After the civil war, the consumption of spirits has been replaced by that of beer, thanks to the influence of German immigrants. Because the laws by State to ban alcohol at the turn of the century have failed, many reformers did campaign for an amendment to the Constitution. In 1917, Congress adopted a national ban on the production and selling alcohol. In part, it was accepted as a wartime measure to preserve grain. The eighteenth amendment took effect in 1920. During the 1920s, the 'noble experiment' failed and prohibition was repealed in 1933. Government control of replaced by alcohol tries to ban.

There is no definition generally choked misuse alcohol. While most people would agree that it includes a pathological use of alcohol at the expense of the health of the individual, career and social position, no objective quantitative measure does exist. Such groups as the American Psychiatric Association have developed diagnostic tools that can help physicians determine whether an individual is an alcoholic, but these tools still have limits. A rule that accepts most of the groups, this is someone who abuses alcohol cannot go a day without a drink. Power outages, participating in activities dangerous while under the influence and drink are classified also the alcohol for the layman. Other behaviors that resemble those of drug addicts to other substances are considered as evidence of the abuse.

The causes of alcohol abuse are also pay an undetermined period. The reformers of the 19th century referred to as individuals in a state of "drunk as"drunks"and considered that they had made a choice. During the 20th century, the term "alcoholic" was adopted. Many professionals come to see alcoholism as a disease suffered some individuals. This point of view is not choked by all. Some have criticized it because of viruses, bacteria or other agents could be identified as someone with abusing alcohol. Others did not like this explanation because it implied that an individual had little, if any, responsibility for having abused alcohol. Instead of being a bad person, they have become a victim. Genetic advances promise to reveal whether there is a genetic cause for alcoholism, similar to that of heart disease or high blood pressure.

Drinking beer while driving man

Forbid has proved that alcohol could not be banned. Instead, in recent years, reformers have tried to use a combination of laws and public opinion to limit its abuse and change the attitudes of the public towards the consumption of alcohol. Federal and state laws have placed high on alcohol taxes, discourage some purchase for many. The sale of spirits was generally limited to specialty stores, with age restrictions. Beer generally had fewer restrictions and has been sold in more than man, often with an age to consume less. The federal Government has also encouraged Member States to CLIQUEADOR the accepted for drivers 'BAC. Rate level Recent studies indicate that alcohol abuse is particularly dangerous in young people. As a result, most states have adopted laws restricting advertising for products alcoholic within their borders. These restrictions are advertising that targets minors, images of children in alcohol, advertising and combining alcohol with athletics.

Logo of Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)

Groups who have actively tried to change public opinion towards alcohol consumption and abuse: mothers against drunk driving (MADD). Founded by a mother does the daughter was killed by a drunk driver. MADD has actively lobbied legislators and worked among young people. Additional groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), do not try to limit alcohol consumption, but would see that some people cannot drink without serious consequences.

Alcohol abuse remains a serious problem in the United States. While everyone recognizes that this is dangerous, prevention methods of abuse and even its root causes are spaces. Legislation and law enforcement was unable to ' adequately impaired driving and consumption of minor. Public opinion has not turned against alcohol consumption, although most agree that customers must be responsibly Aperta.

Other References

Edwards, Griffith. Alcohol: Favourite drug in the world. New York: St. Martin Press, 2003; Jung, John. Psychology alcohol and other drugs: A research perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Wise Publications, 2005. Prêteur, Mark Edward and James Kirby Martin. Drinking in America: A history. New York: Free Press, 1987.

American legal system: overview

The term "American legal system" is misleading because it suggests a unified legal system. Because the U.S. Constitution divides powers between the national Government and the Governments of the United States, it would be more accurate to speak of the "American legal system. Fifty-one different legal systems - one for the federal government and one for each of the 50 states - there are in the United States.

In the years preceding the adoption of the Constitution, the former colonies were governed by the Articles of Confederation. One of the major weaknesses of this arrangement was the absence of a federal judicial system. While each state had institutions to settle legal disputes, no national justice system existed to resolve border conflicts (not a led to a war between Virginia and Pennsylvania) and increasing economic conflicts arising from different states. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, among others, have convinced the delegates of the need for a federal judicial system, officially recognized in Article III of the Constitution, to coexist with the judicial authorities of the states. Thus, since the founding of the Republic, the judiciary in the United States has been distributed between national and state judicial authorities. This is known as "judicial federalism." Although created under separate authorities and with different jurisdictions, the federal judiciary and the judicial authorities of the states have much in common.

Justice of the state and the seal of the United States of America

The legal system in the United States is based on the common law. The universal law is the set of principles that come from judicial decrees that reflect the U.S. and customs. The common law is judge-made, as opposed to the organic law, which is right established by the legislative acts of the legislatures. As these judicial decrees are re applied to similar situations, the set of principles becomes gradually "common" to the whole nation. Customary law was originally introduced in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The expansion of the British Empire, the common law has been exported with it. The basis of the American legal system, therefore the common law. Under the common law, the judge is more than a passive interpreter of the Act; on the contrary, he or she is, through judicial decisions, the creator and modifier of the Act. The main feature of the common law is the doctrine of stare decision. This doctrine holds that judges should look to past policy decisions and resolve current disputes in relying on the precedents. Once a court announces a principle of law, it adheres to this principle in cases raising similar questions. This doctrine, often followed throughout the American legal system, promotes continuity and predictability in the law.

Lawyer to question a witness at the Tribunal

Despite jurisdictional differences, the structure of national judicial systems and states according to a visible trend. Both are basically on three levels. Level the lowest are the courts of first instance, often called courts of first instance. As its name implies, trial courts try cases. It is here that the trial begins and, much more often than otherwise, concludes. Each year, nearly 100 million cases - civil and criminal – are filed in the courts of first instance in 50 states. Because civil law regulates relationships between individuals, a civil case is one that involves individuals or private organizations. Examples: breach of contract, divorce, and defamation of character. Criminal law defines crimes against public order; Thus, a criminal case is one submitted by a government against UN individual will devote to have violated an express provision of the Act. Instances include murder, rape and theft. The courts of first instance in the federal system, because of their limited jurisdiction, hear only a few hundred thousand cases annually is at the level of the Court of first instance that you will find attached prosecutors and defendants, plaintiffs and defendants; and judges and juries. In the layer intermediate are courts of appeal, not the objective is to provide a forum for the consideration of the cases already inscription in the courts of first instance. At the top of the judiciary are the highest courts, commonly referred to as the supreme courts. These courts mainly heard the call in question. As a general rule, the courts of first instance to decide questions of fact and the appellate courts to rule on questions of law. Appellate courts don't use juries; decisions are made by a panel of judges.

In general, only two methods existing for the selection of judges - nomination and election. A compromise method, often called "merit selection," combines elements of the appointive and elective methods. With the appointment, a duly constituted political authority - in general, the President or Governor - ax. Of judicial personnel, often subject to external control of the United Nations. The method of appointment is required by the Constitution for judges of the federal courts. The President appoints, with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Once approved by a simple majority of the Senate vote, federal judges serve the living conditions and may be expelled by the process of impeachment by the house of Representatives and conviction by the Senate. With the election, the electors voted to choose judges. Each state decides for himself the selection of its judges, with more having some type of election. Currently, all 50 states use five different selection methods - partisan election; non-partisan election; legislative appointment; appointment to the governorship; and merit selection. Each approach selection - appointive and elective - advantages and disadvantages.

John Marshall

The legal proceedings in the United States are based on an adversarial system. The courts are neutral arenas in which opposing parties present their case to an impartial arbitrator, which is pronounced and often team with the help of a jury, final judgment. The judiciary is also essential in our system of checks and balances. Originally announced in the case Marbury v. Madison, judicial review, the power of the courts to declare unconstitutional the laws or actions of other governmental entities - has become an important contribution to the Government of the United States. It is in this case that John Marshall c.j. offered the following statement: "It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law."

Other References

Case Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137 (1803).

Acid rain: overview

In New England, acid rain is damaging to hardwood forests, and some trees have stopped the air altogether. At the battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania, the monuments erected to commemorate the role of the site in the civil war is deteriorating much faster than in other regions of the United States. If you D43a a car in the Northeast, the finish of the exterior paint is likely to show more extensive signs of hasty alteration than cars elsewhere in the country. In mid-Appalachian spruce trees are dying. Creeks lose their fish and the entire species in the forests is threatened. In Germany, in addition to half of forests are affected by Walsterben, or 'death of the forest '.

All of these conditions are caused by acid rain, a generic term used to describe the phenomenon that occurs when acids are released in the "atmosphere and deposited in the form of rain, fog or snow (called wet deposition) or as gases and particles (known as dry deposition)." The term was first used in the 1870s by a French scientist, Robert Angus Smith. When l 'moisture s acid' flows through the ground after a storm, it affects plants and animals in aquatic environments, as well as the trees in the forest above ground systems dry deposition occur when winds and storms blowing gases and fine particles on trees or on the surface of the water or soil dry deposition and wet also significantly affect artificial such as houses structures, statues, cars and other vehicles and signs. Before the turn of the 20th century, acid rain has been mainly a problem because of the damage to towns and villages near factories. Now, the problem is international because of d'industrialisation return and more large factory chimneys which disperse pollutants high into the atmosphere, where they can be transported for thousands of miles.

Pollution of air from a pulp and paper plant

Acidic rain acid is invisible and cannot be felt or tasted, but it can be identified and measured on the pH scale, which refers to this acid quantity in water on a scale of 0 to 14. Substances with a pH less than 7 are acidic and substances having a pH above 7.0 are alkaline (basic). Owing to the way the pH scale is designed, there is a difference increased tenfold between a number and the other. For example, a decrease in pH of 6.0 to 5.0 represents a tenfold increase in acidity, while a decline from 6.0 to 4.0 represents an increase of one hundred times. Lemon juice has a pH of 2.3. Vinegar has a pH of 3, and 'pure' rain water has a pH of 5.6. Acid rain has a pH of 5, 6 or less. Most acid rain in the United States has a pH of approximately 4.3.

The three main components of acid rain are sulphur dioxide, dioxide oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are produced by electricity generation using fossil fuels such as coal. These pollutants are also other industrial processes, as well as vehicles. The problem has worsened since the beginning of the 1970s, when a worldwide oil embargo conduit of to a large increase in an amount of coal that was used by the utility companies. A study of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 1985 has shown that the components of acid rain emissions were twice as high also that they had been in 1900. Due to the uncertainty of supplies of oil due to conflicts in the Middle East and other oil-producing regions, importation of foreign coal with a high sulphur content increased the quantity of emissions even more.

The sign of George Bush Clean Air Act Amendments

The United States tried to control emissions through the Clean Air Act (1990), forcing industries to significantly reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide and for nitrogen dioxide. The Act requires utility companies to install pollution control equipment, monitor the level of pollutants released and to obtain emission permits that limit how they can produce. In addition, the agreements between the United States and the Canadian attempt to reduce emissions from power plants along the Ohio River Valley that cause acid rain that poisons Canadians and American media.

The problem of acid rain transcends international borders, and in some parts of Europe, pH levels have been measured at 3.8, even when plants are not present in the vicinity. Pollution dependent more difficult when the source of the emissions controls is difficult to use, as in the case where the prevailing winds carry particles of sulphur in Chinese coal-fired power plants in Japan and Korea.

Other References

Beckley, s. ' who will stop acid rain? Newsweek, March 24,1986. Ahem, Archie M. acidifying: Reign of controversy. Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1986; Mahnen, V.A. "the challenge of acid rain. Scientific American, August 1988; Pack, Chris C. Acid Rain: Rhetoric and reality. New York: Methuen Co., 1987; Yanarella, Judge Ernest and Randal H. Ihara. The acid rain debate: science, economics and the political dimensions. Boulder: Westview, 1985.

Academic Plagiarism Overview

On 13 November 2003, the BBC News website has published the results of an interview with "Anna," a senior student at a British university. Anna freely admitted plagiarizing the work she had handed over his college career. She finished her final project at the time of the interview, also plagiarized. His motives were to achieve its general business and its inability to find the materials they needed in the library. Anna was also forthcoming about how she avoided detection. She bought research papers on the Internet and mixed with parts of his own writing to shake his readers. Professor Susan Bassnett, quoted in the article, called plagiarism in academia as a "plague." His solution to dishonesty, along these lines was simple deportation.

The rapid spread of computers, the rise of the Internet, Web sites and electronic texts, has created a new situation in education. Suddenly, it is very easy to copy the work of someone else and claiming to have written an original work, when in fact the author takes the work of another writer. These practices are defined as plagiarism, a form of academic fraud. Some students, teachers or teachers really understand what is involved in plagiarism. Yet the evidence now exists in some places up to 25% of university students plagiarize systematically testing.

Campus of Boston University

Historically, plagiarism was not considered a problem. In some cultures memorizing scripture was and still is considered a sign of great piety and learning. Therefore, it is important to recognize that plagiarism has become a problem of the rise of the modern university in the 19th century, when universities began granting institution based on merit and not just because someone attended References. The severity of the problem has increased in the mid-twentieth century, when teachers began receiving salary increases and promotions based on the number of scholarly publications. All along, it was thought that when someone writes an assignment, review, article or book is really his own work. Degrees, salary increases and promotions are awarded for creative work written in his own words. Thus, plagiarism undermines the basis for scholarly recognition and awards.

It is actually quite straightforward to define plagiarism. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, plagiarism is "the action or practice of plagiarism, the misappropriation or steal and publish as yourself, ideas, or the expression of ideas (literary, artistic, musical, mechanical, etc.) of another."In plain terms, plagiarism is theft. Stealing someone's work and use it as your own is not contrary to steal someone is the because and use it as your own.

While this sounds simple, yet plagiarism continues at an accelerated pace. Some people are really confused about what plagiarism is and can commit by accident. False accusations are also more frequent. A clear definition and understanding are needed before this problem can be addressed. A more useful definition of plagiarism can be run as follows:

Plagiarism is deliberately mislead the reader without a valid reason through the misappropriation of others' words and representation as his individual work effort. Academic plagiarism occurs when a writer repeatedly uses more than four words from a printed without the use of quotation marks and a precise reference source to the original source in a book presented as the research of the author and scholarship. Continuous paraphrasing without serious interaction with the views of another person through argument, or adding new material and ideas, is a form of plagiarism in academic work.

But even with a clearer definition, plagiarism should continue. Inertia is a reason for this: teachers and students make excuses are no plagiarism. Many others have a vested interest in muddying the waters. Plagiarism can be a very profitable business that leads to employment, promotion, and increased regular wage. Much of that cost taxpayers millions every year. Taxpayers' money to fund schools and universities where students and teachers can be released documents copied.

It is important to recognize that not all cases of credit involve plagiarism. Three factors must be considered before someone is charged with plagiarism.

College student studies

First, the author he made a genuine mistake? Numerous high school and first year university students simply do not know that plagiarism is wrong. With websites offering essays for sale and immediate availability of automated information, young students may think that plagiarism is just too easy and too widespread to be wrong. Others make genuine mistakes, sometimes after moving a text using a word processor. Therefore, the maturity of the alleged plagiarism should be examined. For example, while a freshman should be left off with a warning, a PhD student should be expelled from the program. Similarly, in case of some isolated cases unassigned in the works of the writer credit, it is reasonable to believe that they are real errors. When ownership is frequently accused of plagiarism can be justified.

Secondly, in certain circumstances a writer cannot cite his sources because it would lead to the punishment or death. Therefore, the social context of the work of the writer must be considered. The question must be asked whether or not the author of plagiarism result of censorship or threats of violence. In this case, there is good reason why a writer cannot cite their sources. For example, a writer in the Islamic world, who admits reading the controversial author Salman Rushdie calls a death sentence. Therefore, no one is going to admit to even if they could use his work in his private writings.

Third, when writing novels some writers use descriptions of geographic locations of travel books and other sources. Because the notes are not used in the novels and the novelist's intent is to write a history of plagiarism seems inappropriate because there was no intention to mislead.

The actual problem of plagiarism is educational. School rules clearly state that the tests and the thesis must include 'original. ' Activities The claim of originality means that a student must use his own words, work and ideas. Therefore, a student should read their sources and collect their own data, draw their own conclusions and write everything themselves. They are not allowed to reproduce the work of another person as their own. In other words, the student must demonstrate that they have mastered the material they use in their writing. Academic articles are assigned as a way to test the students''s ability to find information processing and communication. Plagiarism defeats this purpose on all fronts.

Plagiarism can do serious damage to the educational standard is significant considering the responsibility conferred with a university degree. When University confers a diploma, it certified that a person has met certain standards and can be considered competent in their field. The University provides its graduates with the right to speak with authority on specific issues. This authority has societal consequences. A university degree in magazine people that works a person can be trusted. Individuals who obtain the qualification of fraud undermine the whole educational system and social trust. For example, governments may Blogs listened to the teacher of Harvard College when he was invited to give his expertise on a topic. If Professor blogging got his job and control of the domain, it must be able to give reliable advice. If Professor Blogs is a plagiarist, there is no cause to believe that the advice he gives are reliable. In fact, it may not yet understand the policies it promotes. As a consequence, policy makers that he recommends can make harmful acts to the detriment of society.

Thus, plagiarism has been greater than most people imagine the social consequences. In fact, plagiarists are like Enron executives, as everything goes well, they get away with their fraud. Nevertheless, when a crisis occurs, the problems they create are enormous.

Further Reading

Echo, Wilfried. Crisis on Campus: Confronting misconduct. Boston, MA: MIT Press, 2002, Hamilton, Neil W., academic ethics: Problems and materials on professional conduct and shared governance. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, 2002 Mallon, Thomas. Forays into the origins and Ravages of Plagiarism: stolen words. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989; Whitley Jr., E. Bernard and Patricia Keith-Spiegel. Dishonesty: An Educator's Guide. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA, Inc. 2001.

Advertising: overview

Advertising is a method of persuading consumers to buy goods and services by making them aware that these existing products and services. Ads can take almost any form, including printing, audio, television, movies, coupons, free promotions, entertainment, and everything that make consumers think about a product or a brand. One of the most successful campaigns of the 20th century is Aunt Jemima. She has appeared on boxes of pancake in 1893 flour. The model in the photo was a former slave, and she appears dressed in a dress stereotypical slave, including an apron and kerchief. Racism was rampant in America at the beginning of the 20th century, translated to the Aunt Jemima image as an African-American slave or a servant. However, it has changed a lot over the years in the 1950s and 1960, the Americans complained about the way that Aunt Jemima was represented. Her look has changed considerably as a result. Today, his handkerchief and apron are gone, and she wears a neat collar and pearls. Far from being a servant, it is now the middle class, maybe a superior or a homemaker. The campaign of the Aunt Jemima illustrated the works of advertising: it connects a product to an imaginary person or a slogan and Nocivo this icon to make it more attractive under current social conditions.

Advertising has become a serious business in the United States in the 1840s and 1850s. Verner B. Palmer opened the first American advertising agency in Philadelphia in 1841. During the 1850s, the companies have started to use advertisements to create an interest in products until then unknown. For example, in 1850, P.T. Barnum used a combination of advertising in newspapers, posters and leaflets to introduce the unknown Swedish singer Jenny Lind; the advertising was so successful that American 30,000 came to see her when she arrived at the port of New York. In 1861, there were 20 advertising agencies in New York, engaged in the field of the sale of thousands of new products appearing each year. Domestic like magazines harper's weekly made his debut and immediately worked as a vehicle for advertising.

James Buchanan Duke

Between 1870 and 1900, a variety of different magazines, newspapers and products arrived on the scene. Breakfast cereals, trading cards, Ivory SOAP, sewing machines, agricultural machines, users, soft drinks, phones and the phonograph all emerged during this period. Tobacco companies invented different ways of rolling cigarettes, allowing mass production. All these companies used advertising to persuade consumers to buy their products. Tobacco and alcohol launch companies and maintain particularly pervasive campaigns. Advertising was not limited to businesses; individuals could purchase small ads in newspapers to sell their own products. Advertising agencies made huge profits and has become more and more creative in their efforts to reach clients. Ads appeared in magazines, newspapers, by mail and on the rocks, barns and other buildings. Some states have begun passing laws limiting the areas where could appear ads. It was also expensive and advertising; in 1889, the Duke tobacco magnate spent a fifth of its gross turnover on advertising. Yet, it is so valuable to businesses that they willingly expended money.

Advertisers noted that some groups were more likely to buy specific products. In 1891, the magazine advertising age observed that women make most of the buying decisions, and advertisers have responded by directing their messages to women. Advertisers began to do the market research in the 1910s, which allowed them to target their ads to specific audiences.

Poster for the stamps of war as and borrowings

Public service advertising has appeared during the first world war, when advertisers utilized their campaigns to promote the sale of war bonds. Government agencies made include the use of advertising during the second world war, using radio and television time to educate the public about the war, public health and other matters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) today requires radio and television broadcasters to devote a certain amount of their airtime to public service advertising.

Set TV to a whole new dimension. Companies are purchased during television broadcasts. Demographic research has enabled advertisers to D "Increasing L" effectiveness of their message by choosing programs to the public, which nod to their targeted consumers. Product placement, in which a product appears with some clearly visible name in a TV show, became a new secret method of advertising. Proctor & Gamble, a company that sold laundry detergents, helped create a "" serial, films in which characters used Proctor & Gamble products. In the 1960s, advertisers a smart slogan developed that consumers would come to be associated with specific products.

Car and NASCAR driver

The end of the 20th century, advertising was everywhere: on the display panels and leaflets, on the radio, before the movies, on the sides of buses, in posters for Broadway shows, racing cars and athletes, on Web sites, and almost any other place, that optative welcome words or an image. Better demographic information allows advertisers to create niche ads that reach that restrict a potential audience. TV commercials are always one of the most effective forms of advertising. It is so valuable to businesses that undertakings have been willing to pay over $ 2 million to run a commercial during the Super Bowl.

Since the beginning of advertising, on fears that advertising had the adverse power to mislead customers on the qualities of the products. Some magazines of the 19th century, for example, ban advertisements for patented medicines. Some observers criticized advertising campaigns designed to attract specific groups of customers in harmful behaviors such as smoking or drinking, a criticism which continues today.

The seal of the Federal Trade Commission

The government and various groups of 'public interest are interested more in the regulation of advertising. Modern critics worry about the impact of advertising on young children, that the ability of tasks dishonest claims and sexist and racist stereotypes in advertising. They are also particularly concerned with advertisements targeting children with products that are not suitable for them, such as junk food. Some advertisers have even hired psychologists for children to help identify the types of products that will appeal more to certain age groups, the indignation of sparks between the parents and the medical community. Many groups are also concerned by the proliferation of advertising on the Internet and especially about mail 'spamming '. The Federal Trade Commission and various acts of the ' State regulation advertisers and search for cases of "misleading claims that mislead consumers.» To protect children. He shall diffuser or publish advertisements for tobacco or alcohol in certain places and times. There was calls to advertisers tax in order to reduce the amount of advertising.

Advertising is more prevalent than ever in the early 2000s. Customers see littéralement of thousands of ads every day. Advertisers face an ongoing challenge to reach customers and persuade them to buy products. Difficult, although, the field continues to grow because businesses still need to advertise. The direction will take advertising, is what remains open to controversy.

Other References

Fox, Stephen. Manufacturers of mirror: A history of American advertising and its creators. Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1997; HURLEY, Andrew. Dinners, rooms, bowling alleys and trailer parks: chasing the American dream in the postwar consumer culture. New York: Basic Books, 2002; Sivulka, Elisa. SOAP, sex and cigarettes: a cultural history of American advertising. Wadsworth Publishing, 1997.

Anti-Semitism: overview

July 1492 has been busy for King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. That same month, their of explorer Christopher Columbus embarked on his journey to the discovery of America. Executives also expelled all the Jews from Spain. Two hundred thousand people or more have been uprooted and presence in Italy, the Turkey and the Portuguese. Some refugees were betrayed by the captains of ships, which pass their dependants and threw them into the sea the eviction was just the latest round of persecution that the Christian Spain had two on the Jews for more than a century. They had adopted laws against them and forced to convert to Christianity. The Spanish Inquisition was often found fault with the newly converted and attacked. Even burn at the stake. This sad episode is one of many in the history very long and very violent feelings anti-Jewish worldwide.

One of the issues most controversial and the most intractable of intolerance in modern history is a recurrent hate WS and the persecution of Jews and Jewish communities. Known as the "anti-Semitism, hatred of the Jews has fueled some of the most extreme cases of racism in the history of humanity, represented by the horrors of the Holocaust carried out by the RIM Germany during the second world war. For most historians, anti-Semitism is studied as a prevailing phenomenon, but strong anti-Semitic persecution was previously for centuries.

Jesus of Nazareth

On a sample lot of community and institutional assault on Jews since the ' antiquity, although the "modern anti-Semitism has very different characteristics that earlier anti-Jewish feelings. In Mediterranean antiquity, many Pagans harbored anti-Jewish feelings. This stems in large part because the Jews rejected the various pagan gods in favor of the scholar of Judaism. Later, Christianity grew out of Judaism: Jésus Christ and his disciples were Jews. After the death of Jesus, his followers became known as Christians. But as the Christian religion developed, theologians constructed attacks on the Jews. They wanted to blame someone for the unjust death of Jesus. Fathers of the Church said that the Jewish community was responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus. They were also angry with the Jews to reject Christianity. These two points, a conduit to the widespread intolerance and the persecution of the Jews in the Christian world for centuries.

The Romans and their Jewish European successors forced segregation. Professions limited their participation to many and even expelled from their countries. These practices have led to the marginalization of the Jews in the whole of European society, which is stimulated by the official doctrine of the ' Church. As a result of this belief, many Christians throughout Europe participated in pogroms or the massacres of the Jews over the centuries. Often these massacres were precipitated by rumors of Jews of committing violence against Christians. Among the rumors more ridiculous, but sustainable, was the smear of blood. This rumor claimed that Jews kill Christian babies to obtain sings them to make special foods for Jewish holidays. As a consequence of these rumors, the Jews throughout Europe were severely persecuted.

Germans walk by destroyed Jewish Affairs

In the last two centuries, the Jews acquired many rights and equated with success in countries around the world. Nevertheless, at the same time, anti-Semitism has evolved into its modern form. This contemporary form is based on a pseudo-scientific idea that one race is superior to another. Enemy Jews claim that they are separate 'courses' which, as son but base of existence, the desire to destroy all other peoples of the world. The term "anti-Semitism" appeared in the middle of the 19th century as a term specifically used to promote anti-Jewish feelings among non-Jews in Europe. Organizations and anti-Semitic literature began to actively promote the idea to rid Europe of its Jewish population, as the Jews were portrayed as Baju, untrustworthy, and politically dangerous as a group, a community engaged in a conspiracy to destroy all other peoples in the world. Capitalist associated Jews with communism, while the Communists associated Jews with capitalism and a belief is widespread that all Jews were organized as a racial destruction "white" group or "Aryan" civilization has become commonplace. The most deadly expression of this kind of modern anti-Semitism emerged from propaganda for RIM in Germany. The culmination of this propaganda was fatal. Between 1933 and 1945, the Jews have been the object of systematic persecution and physical morales Germany and territories it conquered, persecution, which eventually led to the murder of more than 6 million Jews throughout Europe. This event is known as the Holocaust.

In the wake of the Holocaust, many Jews and non-Jews around the world began to campaign actively to put an end to the spread of "anti-Semitism. The Catholic Church abandons its policy of old to blame the Jews as a group of the crucifixion of Jesus in the Second Vatican Council in 1965. It was an important step to progressive Jewish/Christian-Christian reconciliation, and historians may believe that it was born of the realization that centuries of persecution d official Church of the Jews have contributed to a climate of hatred that makes events such as the Holocaust possible. On the other hand, organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League have been based in the United States and other countries to deal with public demonstrations of anti-Semitism and the Hurst as fraud. Finally, as the pseudo-sciences of the 19th century lost their credibility, number of initial claims made by racists on the Jews, tells that their inferiority racial "inherent" have been debunked and abandoned.

Israeli flag

However, there are many groups that constitute to believe in the "idea of a Jewish conspiracy out to destroy the world, and which promote versions of the"anti-Semitism worldwide. An event that caused this new wave of anti-Jewish feeling has been the creation of the nation of Israel in 1948. The displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians shocked the Arab and Islamic world. Followed by a revival of anti-Semitic stereotypes in these countries. It is ironic, given that, historically, the Jews in lands feel do not enjoy community and personal freedoms that Jews in Europe. In addition, white supremacist and neo-Nazi groups in Europe and North America have Meissnerianis to perpetuate the anti-Semitic myths as part of their ideological frames of hatred, which makes the lanyard's question to be solved in many parts of the world.

In recent years, observers from around the world have noticed an apparent even anti-Semitism, and of non-governmental organizations, such as the Simon Wiesenthal Center and Human Rights Watch, have made tackling this problem a priority. Nevertheless, continue the belief held by millions throughout the world, that Jews are works as a racial group to ruin all other groups, continue to endure. Many people hope that ongoing efforts of education will destroy this illusion decolourise once for all, reversing centuries of hatred and persecution of Jews in the world.

Other References

Cannes, Jerome A. Antisemitism: A reference manual. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004; Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985; McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: in question. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005.

Intimidation: overview

Bullying is defined as when one or more persons with power abuse several times a person with less power in the boat cause harm, distress or fear. Bullying may occur directly, where the aggressor attack the victim, or indirectly, where the assailant asked someone else, like a man's hand, to attack the victim. To classify an act as intimidation, the action must contain all the components of the intimidation. The act must be 1) done purposely. (2) a malicious intent; (3) conducted repeatedly over time; Et 4) involves an imbalance of power between the victim and the aggressor, where the attacker has more power.

Malicious intent is defined according to the judgment of a reasonable person. If a reasonable person believes that the Act could door hurt, embarrassment, humiliation or intimidation, the Act meets the criteria of malicious.

The concept of repeated over time means that the aggressor attacked the victim in the days, months or years. The tyrant does not always perform the same action. Different forms of attacks can be used. The bully can begin with subtle attacks, as roll their eyes with disgust and degenerate into more obvious insults, such as verbal abuse or hitting. The important point is that the victim is directed systematically over time. The attack is not a good event.

The power imbalance is an important aspect of the definition, because the imbalance of power, this is what distinguishes the similar behaviors of childhood bullying, such as the development of social skills or rough play. The imbalance of the tricks the aggressor his pretending everything's okay to hurt the other person. The attacker sees the victim as being inferior to himself, not worthy of respect and the aggressor is sent right to injure the victim. The imbalance of power is also preventing passers-by to protect the victim. Some viewers are reluctant or afraid to stand up to someone with power.

An imbalance of power

Tyrants use their power to injure the victim and to influence the reactions of spectators. If there is no difference in power, the law is bullying not.

Teen boy with a black eye

Coercive power is when someone forces another person to do some close against his will. Coercive despots can physical damage to threaten, wounds with a knife or gun, violence against movable property, pets or a loved one, or they can utilize emotional threats, such as blackmail or threat of disapproval by the peer group. The threat must be real and credible. In some cases, coercive bullies will demonstrate their nominal strength injury ahead of others. This public demonstration of force to minimize resistance of future victims and bystanders.

Legitimate power is the power given to the people because of the position they hold in society. People with lawful authority have the power to establish rules and regulations and to determine who gets resources. Examples of people with rightful authority are teachers, school administrators, police officers, judges and politicians. Legitimate power is misleading. As a way to gain favor with the person in a situation of "authority, people who surround the figure of" authority will show feigned admiration. Those who are not quite wise to discern between true respect and feigned perhaps begin to abuser of their power.

Reward power is the ability to control the actions others through our external motivational factors incentives. Teachers, parents and other child care providers often use rewards to promote behaviors desired in children. Reward power can be abused when the person giving the reward only gives awards to friends, family members or just some members of the group. If the rewards are dismissed inflicted or removed in a deliberate and intentional, the action can be intimidation.

Expert power is the ability to control other people owing to special knowledge, skills or abilities. When people have a distinct knowledge, for example how the human body, using computers fix or comment speak a second language, they can use that knowledge to help others. Anyone who uses the information to belittle or humiliate another person is intimidation. Intellectual intimidation is difficult to identify because it is very easy to conceal. When questioned, attackers often try to conceal their behavior by claiming to have high standards.

Girl is excluded from a group of peers

Referent power is the ability to make others feel good about themselves. People are social and have an inherent need to feel desired, necessary and recherchés as part of a collective group. People who make others feel that they are special and belong to the Group hold considerable power. The person that some compliments or help people feel valued has powerful referent. As with other sources of power, referent power can be used for good or evil. The bullies power uses referent. They attract naive victims into a trap through compliments and room abuse of power, when they have the victim under their influence.

Persistent and chronic

The second part of the definition of harassment, is that the act is done to intentionally injure the victim. If a person is leg its étend and someone from passage travel on foot, the action may or may not be bullying depending on whether if the first person to injury imposed. While the act out a leg has been intentional, inflicting wounds could not have been intended. In FR, the intention, it is important to consider the 'developmental age of the children involved. At recess, young children, aged 5 to 7 years often play tag, hit UN game and run. Pour this age group, hit and run are playing, not intended to hurt. Behaviors mimic bullying of the shares but not the malicious intent of real intimidation.

The next component of the definition of harassment, it is that the hateful behavior is repeated over time. The bully can change behaviour. However, actions are malicious and intended to harm the victim. In some rare cases, an incident is still sufficient to classify behavior as harassment.

Other References

BANDURA, Albert. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977; Kuykendall, Sally. Intimidation. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012; Lorenz, Konrad. On aggression. New York: Bantam Books, 1966; Olweus, Dan Agression in schools. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978.

Capital punishment: overview

April 22, 1983, representatives of Alabama began the execution of prisoners sentenced to death John Evans. However, events did not go according to plan. After he was placed in the electric chair, electricity was applied to the body of Evans but immediately there was an explosion of sparks and flames from the electrode attached to leg of its. Then the electrode itself broke the strap and caught fire. There were several explosions and smoke and sparks erupted on the hood that covers the head of Evans. To establish its state, two doctors examined and discovered that Evans was still alive. Officials of the process back in place electrode but once again the result was more smoke and the fire of son's body. Evans was still alive and despite requests from some lawyer to stop the execution, a third shock occurred on son corps. He was pronounced dead shortly after. Boat en bout, execution took 14 minutes and left Evans burned body. Opponents of capital punishment methods used to bring the amount of death in cruel and unusual punishment, but the supreme court has yet to support them.

Historically, executions have been carried out in public and has attracted very large and noisy of tens of thousands of people crowd. Over time, l 'execution has been moved from the public scene at the privacy of the walls of the prison, perhaps to avoid socially disruptive crowds, or to take account of L ' evolution sensibilities and sensitivities of the middle and upper classes. Nevertheless, the spectacle of a public hanging was always fascinated Americans until 1936. In the past, the death penalty has been applied in various ways, including flying and impale, burn on the stake and the drawing and the insertion, but lately, it confined itself to death by firing squad, hanging, ELECTROCUTION or lethal injection. Death by injection acutely is now the main method of "execution and from 2003, has been used in 37 states."

Chamber injection Acutely

Death penalty refers to the termination of the life of a person in accordance with a sentence passed by a court after a person has been convicted of a capital crime. After almost 150 years of constitutional government, the first federal restrictions on the death penalty have been adopted. The case of Powell v. Alabama (1932) and Brown v. Mississippi (1936) introduced federal restrictions on the use of the death penalty, including a requirement that indigent defendants provide legal counsel if a State has requested the death penalty. During the 1950s, there was a general movement of support for the death penalty. Between 1960 and 1976, there are only 191 executions sent to approximately 1,200 by one during the 1940s. In the 1960s, the abolitionists of the death penalty began a sustained assault on the constitutionality of sentencing. The beginning of the 1960s, most states had ceased to carry out executions. In 1966, a Gallup poll revealed that only 42% of people in the United States support the death penalty.

In 1972, the Supreme Court of the United States said all but a few statutes unconstitutional death penalty and each of the detainees about 630 and then sentenced to death across the country were sentenced to life imprisonment. The Court was divided on the question of whether the death penalty then practiced violated the Constitution. Three judges in the majority said that the death penalty as it was then practiced under the laws of the state was unconstitutional because the discretion that it permit could rise just cruel and unusual punishment. The supreme court said States to repair the defects in their legislation and states acted quickly to do so. In 1976, new legislation or revised authorizing the death penalty had been enacted in five states.

Protest of the execution of Stanley Tookie Williams

In Gregg v. Georgia (1976), the supreme court has approved multiple capital of recently enacted laws. These enacted laws recently implemented a system whereby juries weighed the aggravating factors and then chose the punishment, one of them being the death penalty. The ability of legislators to add new aggravating factors to their death penalty statutes allows the number of cases, with the possibility of a sentence of death penalty to grow. Opponents of the death penalty have criticized these reforms to possibly increase executions, rather than their CLIQUEADOR.

Abolitionists spoke of economic studies to support their cause against the death penalty. Studies have shown that a system of modern-day death penalty is very expensive, with a study revealing that it costs 3.2 million $ to electrocute a prisoner from $600,000 for life imprisonment. In 2000, it was reported that Texas taxpayers paid an average of 2.3 million $ for each execution, while incarceration to life in this cost state $ 800,000 to 1 million $. In 2003, 11 states and the federal government have executed 65 inmates who have been sentenced to death for nearly 11 years. At the end of 2003, there were 3,374 prisoners sentenced to death. California held the largest number with 629, followed by Texas with 453.

Flag of the European Union

Today, the death penalty is considered as a human rights issue and not a matter of choice in the development of criminal justice policy. In 1998, five countries, who were in the United States, had been responsible for more than 80% of executions worldwide. The other four countries were China, the Congo. Iraq and Iran; nations combine are normally not with the United States on any matter. The end of 1998, 67 countries pamphlets Ajay the death penalty for all offences, 14 it had retained for exceptional crimes, and 24 others had not executed anyone for at least 10 years. All the European Union countries Hamzawi of the death penalty, considering that the deletion to be a fundamental attribute of a modern state civilized.

Public opinion in the United States to the penalty of death over the past 50 years a Func. Since the 1950s, about 1966, support for the death penalty amounted to about 47%. Nevertheless, since 1982, a stable majority of about 75% is in favor of the it. Some believe that the death penalty for a deterrent for criminals, to have more impact than a long period of imprisonment without parole. Others argue that it permanently neutralizes the offender and is necessary to protect the company against the murderers who could kill again if released from prison once. The option of life without parole does not seem to dissuade them from this group. Many fear that political leaders will release murderers who were sentenced to life and defender of the death penalty to eliminate this future possibility. Others believe that those who commit the most heinous crimes deserve to be executed, and that life without parole does not sufficiently punish them.

Other references

Banner, Stuart. The death penalty: an American history. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003; Mandery, Evan J. Capital Punishment in America: a balanced explanation. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., 2004.

Autism Spectrum Disorders: Overview

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a term that has been widely adopted to describe a range of diagnoses, including autistic disorder (or autism). Asperger's disorder and pervasive unspecified Development (PDD - our). ASD is a neurological disorder, which means it is based in the brain and an appearance in early childhood. Social interactions are considered the core area of operation is assigned to TSA. The diagnostic criteria for ASD include impairments in reciprocal social interaction and communication and the presence of restricted interests and behaviors and / or repetitive. The average age of diagnosis for all ranges ASD 3.5 to 5 years in the United States, however, parents of children with ASD often report the onset of symptoms between 12 and 18 months of age.

In 2007, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported a prevalence in the United States is 1 in 150 children. In 2009, the prevalence increased to in 1110, all men are affected more often than women, the sex ratio of males to females with a diagnosis of ASD is 4-1. Most ASD cases are idiopathic, meaning they have no known such as brain damage or genetic disorder causes. However, there seems to be a genetic influence, as individuals are at increased risk of developing ASD if they have a family history of the disease.

Brief history of autism

Dr. Eugen Bleuler

The term autism was first used in 1916 by psychiatrist Dr. Eugen Bleuler to describe people with schizophrenia who has been disconnected from reality. In 1943, Dr. Leo Kanner, child psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins, has adopted the term to describe a disorder of childhood, he found "early infantile autism" involving challenges in the social and language in addition to the presence of repetitive behaviors. Dr. Hans Asperger, an Austrian pediatrician practicing in Vienna, described a small group of boys in 1944 with similar challenges in social interaction, but were not as affected as those described by Dr. Kanner. Lorna Wing, a psychiatrist from the UK, subsequently revised the work of Dr. Asperger in the 1980 s and experts encouraged to display the autism as a range of challenges, rather than a homogeneous disorder. This led to the addition of Asperger's syndrome, among other related diagnoses as autism PDD - our diagnoses to be considered separate from the Autism in 1994.

Psychoanalytic theory has dominated psychological thinking mid-20th century, autism was thought for many years to be anchored in the parental rejection of the child, but many parents of autistic children with a number of eminent psychologists and psychiatrists have rejected this theory. Research into the genetic basis of autism began to take place in the 1970 s. In 1977, Dr. Susan Folstein and Sir Michael Rutter published their seminal paper describing identical and fraternal twins with autism and concluded that autism is a genetic disorder is not caused by poor parenting. In the years since the initial explorations of the neuroscience of autism, many results have been supported and clarified, noting that autism is a disorder that is clearly based in the brain.

Areas of impairment

Although the broad areas of challenge are comparable between individuals with ASD, a significant fact is that children and people with ASD vary greatly in their accurate reporting of symptoms. In fact, experts often design not as people with autism, purpose "autisms" because every child can be so different in his / her strengths and weaknesses with.

Type in the quality of social interaction with others is often considered the main symptom of ASD. People with ASD often have difficulty with non-verbal communication and more challenges in the social aspects of verbal communication. Maintain direct eye contact with others is often difficult, and facial expressions may be limited or may not correspond to the situation. Close to the body and an altered sense of personal space can be another difference observed in ASD, such as standing too close or too far from a social partner. In addition, actions such as the use of hands to indicate the size or shape of any high thing in a conversation or to emphasize a point of conversation do not often come naturally to people with ASD.

Peer relationships are often delayed or absent in ASD. Ask questions about friends and other social partners, and in turn paying attention to the other person when it is his / her turn, and offer to share are all important elements of social interaction with peers, skills like these are not intuitive for ASD children. Parents of children with ASD report that it is the reciprocal nature of friendships is problematic because many people with ASD have difficulty maintaining an exchange back and forth.

Many children with ASD are delayed in their language development. Some children with ASD do not develop spoken language in all of their lives, but the percentage of children with ASD who are nonverbal declined in recent years. In addition, many people with ASD use a repetitive language in everyday interactions. For example, they can repeat phrases that adults say or have heard in movies, commercials and television shows. The quality of expressive language may be unusual, some individuals with ASD speak too monotonous (almost robotic sound) and others stop rhythm of speech and take long breaks between words.

In addition, many people with ASD engage in repetitive patterns of behavior or have restricted interests. Repetitive motor mannerisms, intense interests and compulsive behaviors are some of the symptoms in this area.

ASD diagnosis

Although ASD has neurobiological underpinnings and genetic factors play a role in its development. Brain scans and blood tests do not currently exist for diagnosing ASD. Instead, the diagnosis is mainly based on direct observation and parent interview on behavior in collective, communication and behavioral domains restricted / repetitive.

For the majority of children with ASD, the development of social and communication skills is constantly delayed since a young age and social and communication steps are slow to progress. In retrospect, most parents of children with ASD report noted differences in the progress of their child in 12 to 18 months of age. This type of course the development of ASD is often referred to as "early", which means that differences in the development of areas affected in ASD were observed early in life. However, a subset of children with ASD develop normally (or almost normally) in early childhood, then experience a regression in skills for 18 to 24 months of age.

Treatments

Despite the strong biological basis of ASD, curative treatments such as drugs have not been shown to successfully treat the core symptoms of ASD, and behavioral intervention is the only treatment to date with the support of research demonstrating efficacy. Applied Behavior (ABA) analysis is a general term that encompasses intervention approaches aimed at changing behavior and is a teaching method to enhance carefully certain positive behaviors while reducing unwanted behavior. Social and communication skills are generally subject to ABA treatment and skills are usually taught methodically, starting with the most basic skills and moving on to more complex skills. ABA therapy is often in a family setting by trained therapists, but can also be applied in a school setting.

In addition to behavioral therapy, persons with ASD often have other forms of intervention in school or in a private setting such as a clinic. Speech therapy is usually recommended to help them meet the challenges of communication. Occupational therapy is often recommended to treat sensory difficulties, fine motor deficits and overall, repetitive motor mannerisms and skills of everyday life. Alternative therapies such as special diets, chelation therapy, and vitamin supplements are also used by some to treat ASD, but they have not received support for research demonstrating effectiveness.

Conclusion

ASD has received much research and media attention in recent years, and scientists are making new discoveries in genetics, neurologic, early diagnosis and effective daily operations. A significant progress in the last decade is that children with ASD can now be diagnosed reliably by 24 months of age, although signs may be present as early as 8 months of age. Much research is underway to monitor the behavior of the child and to develop better diagnostic tools to identify children at a young age in order to begin working as soon as possible.

Further Reading

Baron-Cohen, Simon. "The cognitive neuroscience of autism." Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 75, no. 7 (2004): 945-48; Bernier, Raphael and Jennifer Gerdts. Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Reference Manual. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2010, Hill, EL, and Uta Frith. "Understanding autism: Insights from mind and brain" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 358 (2003): 281 - 89; Holverstott, Jeanne, Terri Cooper Swanson, Brenda Smith Myles, Megan Moore Duncan disorders... Autism Spectrum [Two Volumes]: A Guide for Parents and Professionals Santa Barbara, CA:... Praeger, 2007 Howlin, Patricia, Susan Goode, Jane Hutton, and Michael Rutter "Result adults for autistic children." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, No. 2 (2004). 212 29; Rogers, Sally J. and Geraldine Dawson Early Start Denver Model for young children with autism. Promote language learning and engagement. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Air pollution: overview

As you walk through the building may appear to be one of the healthiest things a person can do. However, this may not always be the case. The World Health Organization estimates that about 3 million people die worldwide each year as a result of breathing polluted air. In the United States, air pollution is responsible for approximately 70 000 deaths each year. By comparison, vehicle-related accidents kill about 40,000 people. Even sitting at home in your own living room can be a hazard to your health. Many homes, offices and other buildings are poorly ventilated. Breathing air in these buildings can expose a person to a variety of harmful substances, such as radon and carbon monoxide in second-hand smoke. According to the American Lung Association estimates, this radon trapped inside buildings is responsible for 15, 000 to 21,000 lung cancer deaths in the United States each year.

Textile in Lowell, Massachusetts

Air pollution is a problem for human societies for hundreds of years. As early as the 14th century, the air pollution was so bad in England that King Edward I banned the use of coal to make fires, declaring, 'anyone should be convicted of the coal combustion must suffer the loss of his head. ' The problem has become much worse with the rise of the industrial revolution at the beginning of the 19th century. The coal combustion has become the primary means of the operation of factories, railway engines and heating homes and offices. This practice produces huge amounts of waste products, such as soot and ash, which has filled the sky for most of the urban areas in clouds of smoke. People continue to complain about the inconvenience of polluted air, but governments generally accepted the problem as an unfortunate side effect of increasing prosperity. Industrial development has Meissnerianis through the 19th and 20th centuries. The air pollution has become a plus serious and widespread problem. In the 1950s, land that had once been black - as the sky over the Arctic - also began to be polluted.

Coal-fired fireplace

The term air pollution refers to the presence of substances in the "atmosphere at a level that can affect the health and survival of human beings, the other animals and plants." The most common substances in polluted air are carbon monoxide, dioxide (NOx), sulphur dioxide Oxides, ozone, particles, organic compounds volatile (VOC) and lead. By far, the largest source of these pollutants is the combustion of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. Each pollutant has specific harmful effects organizations that vary depending on the amount of pollutants and the time is exposed to the pollutant live. Carbon monoxide in small doses over a short period can each of the headaches, nausea and disorientation; at higher doses, it can cause loss of consciousness and death. Prolonged exposure to dioxide oxides or sulfur dioxide can produce bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema and other respiratory disorders. VOC and ozone also act as irritants to the lungs and can cause respiratory ailments as well as to make the lungs more sensitive to other irritants. Particulate matter consists of tiny particles of unburned carbon and other solids that lodge in the lungs, causing a variety of respiratory problems. Lead is a toxic substance that can each disorder diverse physical and mental health, including reproductive and digestive and mental retardation.

Polluted Northern England mining town

Air pollutants can also produce other injurious effects. Smog - a form of air pollution produced when sunlight acts on pollutants pour former one smog - is responsible for reduced visibility, which can result in car accidents or by air. Dioxide oxides and sulphur dioxide can attack plants, destroying the leaves, flowers and fruits. Most air pollutants also have effects on health as those on humans, domestic animals. Mercury in the air dissolves into the water, where it is ingested by animals and aquatic plants and becomes an integral part of the food chain.

The oldest act in the United States on air pollution was the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, allocation of 5 million $ for the United States to conduct research on air pollution. This act was followed by a series of Clean Air acts and changes in the 1960s, only none were very effective in reducing air pollution. The main piece of legislation concerned with air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1970. The Act established National Ambient Air Quality Standards and new source performance standards which form the basis of the air pollution-reduction programmes still today. He also created standards for automotive emissions. The 1970 Act was amended and revised several times, especially in 1977 and 1990.

The sign of George Bush Clean Air Act Amendments

Fight against pollution of the air in the United States have proved to be a real success. The Environmental Protection Agency reported in 2005 that the total emissions of the six principal air pollutants - nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, carbon monoxide and lead - had fallen by 54% between 1970 and 2004. The situation in the world was not as promising. Then the developed nations were finally getting the problems of air pollution under control, developing countries began only to realize the magnitude of the challenge, they face. China is perhaps the example more solo. At the beginning of the 21st century, 16 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world are in China. As the nation continues to burn coal at a voracious pace to drive its booming economy, air pollution is certain to become a problem even more serious for the giant, it is like many of savings growing around the world.

Other References

Epsom, Mr. Derek Pollution: A global problem. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1992. Kidd, J.S. and Renee A. Kidd. Tunes the in: the problem of Air Pollution. New York: Facts on File, 1998; Turco, Richard P. Earth under siege: the pollution of the air with global change. New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.